Networking video

dear friends ...
some times video tutorial are very usefull compare with paper maierials why because we will put very much interest to watch the video but that interest is not at all while reading the book,
well here we are giving data comunication networks video tutorial
in this we will discuss
how the packets will filled with data
how the authentication will provide
how he transmission is going on in the routers
and more..
if u want to know how the router will change the route with its arms you should see this video

for that video u just click here

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NETWORKING 3GP VIDEO

NOTE : the video in 3gp format because of easy to see through your mobiles

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CCNA

CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate)

Definition:

The CCNA validates the ability to install, configure, operate, and troubleshoot enterprise level router and switched networks. This includes design implementation and verification of connections to remote sites in a WAN. New CCNA training includes basic mitigation of security threats, introduction to wireless networking and Voice.How to Gain the CCNA CredentialThe CCNA Credential is obtained by completing course work delivered by a Cisco certified training provider as well as passing the 640-822 ICND1 and 640-816 ICND2), or one single test (CCNA 640-802)Composite. CCNA TrainingCCNA training is required to sit for the CCNA exam. If training was not completed by attending ICND1 training and ICND2 training then CCNA training is required. CCNA training is 180 coursework delivered by a Cisco Certified Training Partner. 60 hours is delivered virtually prior to attending 60 hours of insturctor led training with hands on labs and concluded by 60 hours of post classroom training on virtual labs. CCNA Exam:Candidates have the option of gaining the certification by passing two tests (640-822 ICND1 and 640-816 ICND2), or one single test (CCNA 640-802]])Composite; the two-test option has the advantage of allowing the candidate to test for the subject matter in one or two sittings.[1]
Continuing CCNA Education:The certification is valid for three years; at that time a Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) holder must either
re-take the CCNA or ICND2 exam, or
take and pass an exam for one of the Professional (e.g.,Professional certifications CCNP or Specialist level certifications (excluding the sales specialist exams), or pass the CCIE written exam.
These exams are conducted by authorized test centers at a cost of $125 USD each for the ICND1 or ICND2 exams and, effective 06.23.2008[2], $250 USD for the full CCNA exam.

NOTE : IF ANY HELP ON CCNA TOPICS YOU MAY CLICK HERE

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Aradhana welcomes you...

aradhana welcomes u..

first off all this blog is giving good knoledge for you to improve your skils,i hope you will get success

how a man will get success please see this pps

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windows run commands

Do you use the Run feature in Windows XP? For most, this feature remains unused (or rarely used). Why is that? Well, first off nearly all of the Run Commands Correspond to a particular Control Panel Item or a Utility, Tool or Task that can be accessed through Windows.
Here is the list of diffrent Run command. To access go to run (Win + R )
Accessibility Controls : access.cpl
Accessibility Wizard : accwiz
Add Hardware Wizard : hdwwiz.cpl
Add/Remove Programs : appwiz.cpl
Administrative Tools control : admintools
Adobe Acrobat (if installed) : acrobat
Adobe Designer (if installed) : acrodist
Adobe Distiller (if installed) : acrodist
Adobe ImageReady (if installed) : imageready
Adobe Photoshop (if installed) : photoshop
Automatic Updates : wuaucpl.cpl
Bluetooth Transfer Wizard : fsquirt
Calculator : calc
Certificate Manager : certmgr.msc
Character Map : charmap
Check Disk Utility : chkdsk
Clipboard Viewer : clipbrd
Command Prompt : cmd
Component Services : dcomcnfg
Computer Management : compmgmt.msc
Control Panel : control
Date and Time Properties : timedate.cpl
DDE Shares : ddeshare
Device Manager : devmgmt.msc
Direct X Control Panel (If Installed)* : directx.cpl
Direct X Troubleshooter : dxdiag
Disk Cleanup Utility : cleanmgr
Disk Defragment : dfrg.msc
Disk Management : diskmgmt.msc
Disk Partition Manager : diskpart
Display Properties control : desktop
Display Properties : desk.cpl
Display Properties (w/Appearance Tab Preselected) control : color
Dr. Watson System Troubleshooting Utility : drwtsn32
Driver Verifier Utility : verifier
Event Viewer : eventvwr.msc
Files and Settings Transfer Tool : migwiz
File Signature Verification Tool : sigverif
Findfast : findfast.cpl
Firefox (if installed) : firefox
Folders Properties control : folders
Fonts control : fonts
Fonts Folder : fonts
Free Cell Card Game : freecell
Game Controllers : joy.cpl
Group Policy Editor (XP Prof) : gpedit.msc
Hearts Card Game : mshearts
Help and Support : helpctr
HyperTerminal : hypertrm
Iexpress Wizard : iexpress
Indexing Service : ciadv.msc
Internet Connection Wizard : icwconn1
Internet Explorer : iexplore
Internet Properties : inetcpl.cpl
Internet Setup Wizard : inetwiz
IP Configuration (Display Connection Configuration) : ipconfig /all
IP Configuration (Display DNS Cache Contents) : ipconfig /displaydns
IP Configuration (Delete DNS Cache Contents) : ipconfig /flushdns
IP Configuration (Release All Connections) : ipconfig /release
IP Configuration (Renew All Connections) : ipconfig /renew
IP Configuration (Refreshes DHCP & Re-Registers DNS) : ipconfig /registerdns
IP Configuration (Display DHCP Class ID) : ipconfig /showclassid

puzzles

puzzles :

1) How many ways are there of arranging the sixteen black or white pieces of a standard international chess set on the first two rows of the board?
Given that each pawn is identical and each rook, knight and bishop is identical to its pair.
2) A person with some money spends 1/3 for cloths, 1/5 of the remaining for food and 1/4 of the remaining for travel.
He is left with Rs 100/-How much did he have with him in the beginning?
3) Grass in lawn grows equally thick and in a uniform rate. It takes 24 days for 70 cows and 60 days for 30 cows to eat the whole of the grass.
How many cows are needed to eat the grass in 96 days?

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technical aptitude questions

Dear friends here i am going give some technical aptitude questions

for examples as ....

Convert the expression ((A + B) * C – (D – E) ^ (F + G)) to equivalent Prefix and Postfix notations.
Prefix Notation:
^ - * +ABC - DE + FG
Postfix Notation:
AB + C * DE - - FG + ^
Sorting is not possible by using which of the following methods?
(a) Insertion
(b) Selection
(c) Exchange
(d) Deletion

(d) Deletion.
Using insertion we can perform insertion sort, using selection we can perform selection sort, using exchange we can perform the bubble sort (and other similar sorting methods). But no sorting method can be done just using deletion.

What is the type of the algorithm used in solving the 8 Queens problem?
Backtracking

In an AVL tree, at what condition the balancing is to be done?
If the ‘pivotal value’ (or the ‘Height factor’) is greater than 1 or less than –1.

What is the bucket size, when the overlapping and collision occur at same time?
One. If there is only one entry possible in the bucket, when the collision occurs, there is no way to accommodate the colliding value. This results in the overlapping of values.

main(int argc, char **argv)
{
printf("enter the character");
getchar();
sum(argv[1],argv[2]);
}
sum(num1,num2)
int num1,num2;
{
return num1+num2;
}
Answer:
Compiler error.
Explanation:
argv[1] & argv[2] are strings. They are passed to the function sum without converting it to integer values.

# include
int one_d[]={1,2,3};
main()
{
int *ptr;
ptr=one_d;
ptr+=3;
printf("%d",*ptr);
}
Answer:
garbage value
Explanation:
ptr pointer is pointing to out of the array range of one_d.

# include
aaa() {
printf("hi");
}
bbb(){
printf("hello");
}
ccc(){
printf("bye");
}
main()
{
int (*ptr[3])();
ptr[0]=aaa;
ptr[1]=bbb;
ptr[2]=ccc;
ptr[2]();
}
Answer:
bye
Explanation:
ptr is array of pointers to functions of return type int.ptr[0] is assigned to address of the function aaa. Similarly ptr[1] and ptr[2] for bbb and ccc respectively. ptr[2]() is in effect of writing ccc(), since ptr[2] points to ccc.

85) #include
main()
{
FILE *ptr;
char i;
ptr=fopen("zzz.c","r");
while((i=fgetch(ptr))!=EOF)
printf("%c",i);
}
Answer:
contents of zzz.c followed by an infinite loop
Explanation:
The condition is checked against EOF, it should be checked against NULL.

86) main()
{
int i =0;j=0;
if(i && j++)
printf("%d..%d",i++,j);
printf("%d..%d,i,j);
}
Answer:
0..0
Explanation:
The value of i is 0. Since this information is enough to determine the truth value of the boolean expression. So the statement following the if statement is not executed. The values of i and j remain unchanged and get printed.
34. What is Multivalued dependency?
Multivalued dependency denoted by X Y specified on relation schema R, where X and Y are both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation r of R: if two tuples t1 and t2 exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X] then t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the following properties
Ø t3[x] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]
Ø t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]
Ø t3[Z] = t2[Z] and t4[Z] = t1[Z]
where [Z = (R-(X U Y)) ]

What is Lossless join property?
It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation schemas after decomposition.

What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?
The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.

What is Fully Functional dependency?
It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y is full functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the dependency does not hold any more.

What is 2NF?
A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully functionally dependent on primary key.

What is 3NF?
A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the following is true
Ø X is a Super-key of R.
Ø A is a prime attribute of R.
In other words, if every non prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary key.

What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?
A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies an additional constraint that for every FD X A, X must be a candidate key.

What is 4NF?
A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every Multivalued dependency X Y that holds over R, one of following is true
Ø X is subset or equal to (or) XY = R.
Ø X is a super key.

What is 5NF?
A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ..., Rn} that holds R, one the following is true
Ø Ri = R for some i.
Ø The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in which the left side is key of R.
What is Domain-Key Normal Form?
A relation is said to be in DKNF if all constraints and dependencies that should hold on the the constraint can be enforced by simply enforcing the domain constraint and key constraint on the relation.

What are partial, alternate,, artificial, compound and natural key?
Partial Key:
It is a set of attributes that can uniquely identify weak entities and that are related to same owner entity. It is sometime called as Discriminator.
Alternate Key:
All Candidate Keys excluding the Primary Key are known as Alternate Keys.
Artificial Key:
If no obvious key, either stand alone or compound is available, then the last resort is to simply create a key, by assigning a unique number to each record or occurrence. Then this is known as developing an artificial key.
Compound Key:
If no single data element uniquely identifies occurrences within a construct, then combining multiple elements to create a unique identifier for the construct is known as creating a compound key.
Natural Key:
When one of the data elements stored within a construct is utilized as the primary key, then it is called the natural key.

What is indexing and what are the different kinds of indexing?
Indexing is a technique for determining how quickly specific data can be found.
Types:
Ø Binary search style indexing
Ø B-Tree indexing
Ø Inverted list indexing
Ø Memory resident table
Ø Table indexing

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HR INTERVIEWS

dear friends i am giving some HR INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ...

i hope that will be use full for ,u want click here

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and download as hr interviews2

windows tweaks

windows tweaks ..

please click here

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tweaks

JAVA MESSENGER

java messenger

A messenger is a person employed in business to convey messages, official dispatches, telegrams, letters, or parcels, and go on special errands as part of their duties. In the government and military, a messenger is an official courier.

platform : java

requirements : one servers,one or more number of clients,

level : intermediate

download at here

JMessenger1

DISK SHEDULING

A magnetic disk consists of a collection of platters which rotate on about a central spindle. These platters are metal disks covered with magnetic recording material on both sides. Each disk surface is divided into concentric circles called tracks. Each track is divided into sectors where information is stored. The reading and writing device, called the head moves over the surface of the platters until it finds the track and sector it requires. This is like finding someone's home by first finding the street (track) and then the particular house number (sector). There is one head for each surface on which information is stored each on its own arm. In most systems the arms are connected together so that the heads move in unison, so that each head is over the same track on each surface. The term cylinder refers to the collection of all tracks which are under the heads at any time.

First Come First Served (FCFS)

The disk controller processes the I/O requests in the order in which they arrive, thus moving backwards and forwards across the surface of the disk to get to the next requested location each time. Since no reordering of request takes place the head may move almost randomly across the surface of the disk. This policy aims to minimise response time with little regard for throughput.
Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF)Each time an I/O request has been completed the disk controller selects the waiting request whose sector location is closest to the current position of the head. The movement across the surface of the disk is still apparently random but the time spent in movement is minimised. This policy will have better throughput than FCFS but a request may be delayed for a long period if many closely located requests arrive just after it.
SCAN

The drive head sweeps across the entire surface of the disk, visiting the outermost cylinders before changing direction and sweeping back to the innermost cylinders. It selects the next waiting requests whose location it will reach on its path backwards and forwards across the disk. Thus, the movement time should be less than FCFS but the policy is clearly fairer than SSTF.
Circular SCAN

(C-SCAN)C-SCAN is similar to SCAN but I/O requests are only satisfied when the drive head is travelling in one direction across the surface of the disk. The head sweeps from the innermost cylinder to the outermost cylinder satisfying the waiting requests in order of their locations. When it reaches the outermost cylinder it sweeps back to the innermost cylinder without satisfying any requests and then starts again.
LOOK

Similarly to SCAN, the drive sweeps across the surface of the disk, satisfying requests, in alternating directions. However the drive now makes use of the information it has about the locations requested by the waiting requests. For example, a sweep out towards the outer edge of the disk will be reversed when there are no waiting requests for locations beyond the current cylinder.
Circular LOOK

(C-LOOK)Based on C-SCAN, C-LOOK involves the drive head sweeping across the disk satisfying requests in one direction only. As in LOOK the drive makes use of the location of waiting requests in order to determine how far to continue a sweep, and where to commence the next sweep. Thus it may curtail a sweep towards the outer edge when there are locations requested in cylinders beyond the current position, and commence its next sweep at a cylinder which is not the innermost one, if that is the most central one for which a sector is currently requested.
we have source code for this,the code was written in c-programing ....by the request

u may download at here

DISK SHEDULING

SQL SERVER2005

Microsoft SQL Server is a relational database management system (RDBMS) produced by Microsoft. Its primary query language is Transact-SQL

• Architecture
  Protocol layer
  Protocol layer implements the external interface to SQL Server. All operations that can be invoked on SQL Server are communicated to it via a Microsoft-defined format, called Tabular Data Stream (TDS). TDS is an application layer protocol, used to transfer data between a database server and a client. Initially designed and developed by Sybase Inc. for their Sybase SQL Server relational database engine in 1984, and later by Microsoft in Microsoft SQL Server, TDS packets can be encased in other physical transport dependent protocols, including TCP/IP, Named pipes, and Shared memory. Consequently, access to SQL Server is available over these protocols. In addition, the SQL Server API is also exposed over bando web services.[1]

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ORACLE

SQL stands for Structured Query Language.
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.
In this tutorial you will learn how to use SQL to access and manipulate data in MySQL, SQL Server, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, DB2, and other database systems.

SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:
SELECT * FROM Persons
In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.

DOWNLOAD ITRODUCTION TO ORACLE1




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html

In this HTML tutorial you will learn how to use HTML to create your own Web site.

What is an HTML File?
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
An HTML file is a text file containing small markup tags
The markup tags tell the Web browser how to display the page
An HTML file must have an htm or html file extension
An HTML file can be created using a simple text editor

HTML Tags
HTML tags are used to mark-up HTML elements
HTML tags are surrounded by the two characters <>
The surrounding characters are called angle brackets
HTML tags normally come in pairs like and
The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag
The text between the start and end tags is the element content
HTML tags are not case sensitive, means the same as

TO LEARN COMPLETE HTML YOU JUST DOWNLOAD OUT COMPLETE TUTORIAL,FOR THAT click here

TO LEARN ADVANCED CONCEPTS IN HTML PLESE click here

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How to structure your Links..

As a beginner, it is probably best to leave all files, HTML and graphics, in one directory. That way, when you link to and from your files with you do not need to have the full path.

For example, say you have two pages:

http://www.reallycreativename.com/~YOURNAME/index.html

http://www.reallycreativename.com/~YOURNAME/links.html

If you want to place a link from the index.html page to the links.html page, all you need to put is My Links Page. If you are editing your links.html page, and want to link it to the index.html, all you need to type is My Home Page.

Now if you want to get a little more advanced and your host supports directories, things get a little more challenging. Let's say you have a pet and you want it to have a web page at http://www.reallycreativename.com/~YOURNAME/mypet/. So you decide to create a directory on your hard drive as c:\homepage\mypet. Then you (or your pet) writes a home page called index.html and saves it to c:\homepage\mypet\index.html. You log onto your ftp server, and make a directory called mypet. You upload your pet's index.html file into that directory.

Now your File Structure looks like this:

http://www.reallycreativename.com/~YOURNAME/index.html

http://www.reallycreativename.com/~YOURNAME/links.html

http://www.reallycreativename.com/~YOURNAME/mypet/index.html

On YOUR index.html page, you want a link to your pet's index.html page in the mypet directory. The most common way to do this is type out the full URL (uniform resource locator) as

Visit My Pet's Page!

OR

Visit My Pet's Page!

But because your index.html is in the directory http://www.reallycreativename.com/~YOURNAME/ you can do it an easier way. Remember how when you linked to links.html from index.html without using the full URL? Well that is because they are in the same directory. Since your pet's home page is only one directory further down, all you need to type for the link is:

Visit My Pet's Page!

OR

Visit My Pet's Page!

Now you have a link to your pet's page... but say you want (or your pet wants) to link to your index.html in /~YOURNAME/. Because the directory is up one directory in the file structure, you can use two periods (..) and then a slash (/) to move back. So you are editing your pet's index.html page in the directory mypet and want to link to your page... here is how you can do it:

Visit My Owner's Page!

OR

Visit My Owner's Page!

What is Network?

What is Network?
A network or communication network is a system of interconnected communication devices that can communicate with one another and share information. Therefore computer network can be defined as:
A system in which more than one computers or large number of computers are interconnected together, communicate freely with one another and share information is called computer network.
A network can be internal to an organization or span the world by connecting itself to the internet. In computer network, network operating system is used that controls and co-ordinates the activities of computers that are connected to the network. The example of these operating systems are: windows NT, UNIX, and Novell etc.

Types of Network
Networks are of three types. These are:
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Local Area Network
A local area network is a network system in which computers are interconnected in a limited geographical area, such as network of computers in college computer laboratory or network of computers in office building etc.
Wide Area Network
A wide area network is a network system that covers a large geographical area such as different cities of country or different countries of the world. In WAN telephone lines, satellites, microwave, fiber optic etc. are used as transmission media.
Metropolitan Area Network
A Metropolitan area Network is a network system that covers area of a single city. Usually, MAN connects more than one LANS in a city or town and covers a smaller geographical area than a WAN. The cable television, telephone companies or local corporations use MAN.
Internet
The internet is a worldwide collection of networks that connects millions of computers, business, government agencies, educational institutions. It is a global network and source of information. Information can be communicated from one country to another through internet. More than two and half billion people around the world use the internet daily for different purposes. For example, to communicate with other people around the world, access information and latest news around the world. The computers are the main source through which information can be electronically sent and received from one location to another.
TCP/IP
In this protocol data transmission is managed by dividing the data into different pieces called packets. Each packet of data contains a part of actual data, source computer address, destination address, and information for reassembling data at destination computer. These packets of data travel along the fastest available path in the network. This type of data transmission is called packet switching and is used in internet communication.
IP Addressing
IP stands for internet protocol. Basically it is a unique identifier for a computer on the internet. It is numerical address with four numbers separated with dots and the format of an IP address is a 32-bit.Each number can be start from 0 and ends with 255. For example IP address looks like this: 131.200.1.1
Every computer on the internet using unique IP address and this IP address can be static and dynamic. A server has a static IP address that does not change. When a computer dialing internet through modem then that computer has a IP address that is assigned by the local ISP. Your local ISP assigned you unique IP address for each session and it may be different each time.
What is Packets?
The transfer of data from one place to another place in the form of digital signals and this data is broken into small data segment before being transmitted from one computer to another computer. These small data segments are called packets. Each packets contains the information about its source and destination (sender's and receiver's information). A normal packets size between 1000 to 1500 bytes. The packets send to its destination using best possible path and this makes a network more efficient.
Network Devices
Digital Modem
The modem that is used to send and to receive data to and from a digital telephone line is called digital modem. ISDN modem and DSL modem are the best example of digital modem. These modem are used to send and receive the digital data to and from the digital line, So there is no need to convert to analog signals because digital lines already use the digital signals.
Bridge
It is an electronic device that connects two same type of networks and control the traffic between them. A bridge basically split an overloaded network into two separate network for reducing the amount of traffic on each segment and increase the performance of each network. A bridge looks at the information in each packet header and forwards data from one LAN to another.
Router
An electronic device that connects many computers together and transmits data to its correct destination using the available path on the network is called router. It stores the information of each node on the network and to use these information to transfer date between nodes.
Routable Protocols
There are not all protocols works with routers. Routable protocols are
IP
IPX
OSI
DECnet
XNS
Like a bridge, a router looks at each packet's header to determine the destination of packet and thus reach its destination. Some routers also have built-in antivirus protection. Similarly, some routers also support wireless communication
Type of Routers
Static Router.
An administrator manually set up the router path and configuration of static router.
Dynamic Router.
A dynamic router automatically find the path to its destination with minimal configuration.
Gateway
A gateway is an electronic device that can perform logical function. A gateway is a device or system (because it may be a hardware or software) that connects two or more networks to share their information from one to the other. Packets from different networks have different type of information in their headers, and information in different format. The gateway can take a packet from one type of network, read the header, and then encapsulates the entire packet into a new one, adding a header that is understood by the network.

OSI REFFERENCE MODEL

The 'Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model' (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model) is an abstract description for layered communications and computer network protocol design. It was developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) initiative[1]. In its most basic form, it divides network architecture into seven layers which, from top to bottom, are the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data-Link, and Physical Layers. It is therefore often referred to as the OSI Seven Layer Model.
A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to the layer above it and receives service from the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of the path.
Even though it has been largely superseded by newer IETF, IEEE, and indeed OSI protocol developments (subsequent to the publication of the original architectural standards), the basic OSI model is considered an excellent place to begin the study of network architecture. Not understanding that the pure seven-layer model is more historic than current, many beginners make the mistake of trying to fit every protocol under study into one of the seven basic layers. Especially the attempts of cross-layer optimization break the boundaries of the original layer scheme. Describing the actual layer concept with implemented systems is not always easy to do as most of the protocols in use on the Internet were designed as part of the TCP/IP model, and may not fit cleanly into the OSI Model.

Application Layer
Main article: Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network resources for the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

Layer 6: Presentation Layer
Main article: Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer establishes a context between Application Layer entities, in which the higher-layer entities can use different syntax and semantics, as long as the Presentation Service understands both and the mapping between them. The presentation service data units are then encapsulated into Session Protocol Data Units, and moved down the stack.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serializing objects and other data structures into and out of XML. ASN.1 has a set of cryptographic encoding rules that allows end-to-end encryption between application entities.

Layer 5: Session Layer
Main article: Session Layer
The Session Layer controls the dialogues/connections (sessions) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of TCP, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The Session Layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls (RPCs).

Layer 4: Transport Layer
Main article: Transport Layer
The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the Transport Layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the Transport Layer, the best known examples of a Layer 4 protocol are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
Of the actual OSI protocols, there are five classes of transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the least error recovery) to class 4 (which is also known as TP4 and is designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 is closest to UDP. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the Session Layer. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the Transport Layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a Network Layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.

Layer 3: Network Layer
Main article: Network Layer
The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks, while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport Layer. The Network Layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical.
The best-known example of a Layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). It manages the connectionless transfer of data one hop at a time, from end system to ingress router, router to router, and from egress router to destination end system. It is not responsible for reliable delivery to a next hop, but only for the detection of errored packets so they may be discarded. When the medium of the next hop cannot accept a packet in its current length, IP is responsible for fragmenting into sufficiently small packets that the medium can accept it.
A number of layer management protocols, a function defined in the Management Annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the Network Layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, Network Layer information and error, and Network Layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the Network Layer, not the protocol that carries them.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer
Main article: Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed independently of the ISO work, in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the Transport Layer by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages.
Both WAN and LAN services arrange bits, from the Physical Layer, into logical sequences called frames. Not all Physical Layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely intended for Physical Layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not used by the Data Link Layer.

WAN Protocol architecture
Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to framing, detect and may correct errors. They also are capable of controlling the rate of transmission. A WAN Data Link Layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD.

IEEE 802 LAN architecture
Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE Ethernet specification, which is the ancestor of IEEE 802.3. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium, which is the function of a Media Access Control sublayer. Above this MAC sublayer is the media-independent IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which deals with addressing and multiplexing on multiaccess media.
While IEEE 802.3 is the dominant wired LAN protocol and IEEE 802.11 the wireless LAN protocol, obsolescent MAC layers include Token Ring and FDDI. The MAC sublayer detects but does not correct errors.

Layer 1: Physical Layer
Main article: Physical Layer
The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, Hubs, repeaters, network adapters, Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area Networks) and more.
To understand the function of the Physical Layer in contrast to the functions of the Data Link Layer, think of the Physical Layer as concerned primarily with the interaction of a single device with a medium, where the Data Link Layer is concerned more with the interactions of multiple devices (i.e., at least two) with a shared medium. The Physical Layer will tell one device how to transmit to the medium, and another device how to receive from it (in most cases it does not tell the device how to connect to the medium). Obsolescent Physical Layer standards such as RS-232 do use physical wires to control access to the medium.
The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are:
Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.
Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.
Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical SCSI protocol is a Transport Layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various Physical Layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the Data Link Layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, FDDI, and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

CABLE NET

The cable Television line is not a standard telephone line. It is dedicated line used to access the internet with high speed and provides the faster internet access as compare to dial-up. Its data transmission speed is start from 64 Kbps to 3 Mbps. To access cable internet a cable modem used at user end and this modem connects to a computer using Network Interface card or at USB port. A cable modem sends and receives digital data over the cable television network.

To access the internet using cable network, the cable internet provider company installs new cable if your are not using cable runs to your television, and if your are already using cable for television then your cable internet provider company installs a splitter inside your house. From the splitter, one part of the cable runs to your television and other part connects to the cable modem. A cable modem usually is an external device, in which one end of modem connect the cable line wall outlet and other end plugs into a LAN cards. There is not need to dial the modem for using internet simply start your computer and internet is ready for you.

THANKS TO VISIT ARADHANA

FIBER OPTIC CABLE

In twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable, data is transmitted in the form of electric frequencies. So copper wire has to be protected from water and electromagnetic waves. In fiber optic cable, these types of problems are not occurred. The fiber-optic cable uses light to transmit data. A fiber-optic cable consists of hundreds of thin glass fibers or strands of glass.

Each strand is referred to as optical fiber. Each optical fiber is as a human hair. The glass is an insulating material, it is because these are not affected by electromagnetic waves. Thus, they have much lower data transmission errors.
The data transmission speed is very high because fiber-optic cable uses light to transmit data. The data transmission speed is up to billions bits per second.
The disadvantages of fiber optic cable are:
It is more costly and difficult to troubleshoot.
It is difficult to install and modify.
Therefore the fiber-optic cable is becoming more popular and replacing all old cable system. Today telephone, banks, and television companies are replacing their existing telephone and coaxial cables with fiber-optic cables.

THANKS TO VISIT ARADHANA

INTERNET

The internet is a worldwide collection of networks that connects millions of computers, business, government agencies, educational institutions. It is a global network and source of information. Information can be communicated from one country to another through internet. More than two and half billion people around the world use the internet daily for different purposes. For example, to communicate with other people around the world, access information and latest news around the world. The computers are the main source through which information can be electronically sent and received from one location to another.

For this purpose a special device called modem is also used with computer and then computer is attached with the telephone line. The modem sends and receives the information over telephone lines. You must have an internet connection of any local ISP to share the information on internet. The telephone lines, fiber-optic cables, satellite communications are the main media of communication that are used to connect to the internet.
Today internet is a global web of nearly one million computer networks. Internet host computers are connected to the internet round the clock. The internet provides many facilities to the people. The main facilities are
to share information with other people around the world.
to access latest news, articles, sports around the world.
to communicate using chat software and email application.
to search information on different topics and problems.

THANKS TO VISIT ARADHANA

BROADBAND

Broadband basically a high bandwidth internet connection that can transmit and download large amounts of date or information with high speed. you can transmit data 10 times faster than a dial-up connection. We can transmit data in broadband with 512 Kbps , 2 Mbps speed and more.
Are there different types of Broadband?
Yes, you may have heard of terms such as ADSL, Wireless and Cable?
DSL
The DSL stand for Digital Subscriber Line. DSL provides high speed on already exiting telephone lines and same time you can use internet and as well as your line for phone. In DSL, both ends of connections require the network cards and DSL modems for data communication.

Your DSL connection to the Internet will always on, there is not need to dial your ISP each time to use internet. DSL is much easier to install and provides much faster data transfer rate. Its data transmission speed start from 128 Kbps up to 10 Mbps. DSL connections are more useful in applications like videoconferencing, to run online movies and upload and download heavy files. There are different flavors of DSL like ADSL, R-ADSL, HDSL, SDSL, and VDSL.
The ADSL and HDSL are very common in use, the former being more popular for home usage.
What is ADSL?ADSL stand for asymmetric digital subscriber line, here asymmetric means data speed does not same in both directions (upload and download) and provides high speed on already exiting telephone lines and same time you can use internet and as well as your line for phone. It is faster than DSL and but ADSL downstream speed (downstream rate ) is different with upstream speed (sending rate ). ADSL is much easier to install and provides much faster data transfer rate. ADSL support data upstream rate is 16 Kbps to 640 Kbps and data downstream rate is 1.5 to 9 Mbps. Normally ADSL and download and upload speed is averagely 10 time more than a normal dial up connection.
Your DSL connection to the Internet will always on, there is not need to dial your ISP each time to use internet and the main requirement for ADSL connection is modem. There are many option in modem hardware for example: USB ADSL Modem, PCI ADSL Modem, and ADSL Router, but mostly used USB Modem because easy to install. For 1 or 2 computer the USB modem is best but for more than 3 computer you should use Ethernet ADSL modem. ADSL connections are more useful in applications like videoconferencing, to run online movies and upload and download heavy files. This connection is ideal for today business requirements.
How Cable Internet Works?
The cable Television line is not a standard telephone line. It is dedicated line used to access the internet with high speed and provides the faster internet access as compare to dial-up. Its data transmission speed is start from 64 Kbps to 3 Mbps. To access cable internet a cable modem used at user end and this modem connects to a computer using Network Interface card or at USB port. A cable modem sends and receives digital data over the cable television network.
To access the internet using cable network, the cable internet provider company installs new cable if your are not using cable runs to your television, and if your are already using cable for television then your cable internet provider company installs a splitter inside your house. From the splitter, one part of the cable runs to your television and other part connects to the cable modem. A cable modem usually is an external device, in which one end of modem connect the cable line wall outlet and other end plugs into a LAN cards. There is not need to dial the modem for using internet simply start your computer and internet is ready for you.
Most common system requirements for Broadband are as follows:
For PCPentium II + Windows 98, ME, 2000, XP 32 MB RAM

(for Windows 98) 64 MB RAM

(for Windows 2000 and ME) 128 MB RAM

(for Windows XP) Spare USB port and a CD-ROM drive SVGA display 800x600x256 colours + 150MB hard disk drive space Internet Explorer version 5.5 +

ETHERNET

Ethernet is a protocol that is used over Local Area Network (LAN). Basically Ethernet is a LAN technology that is used to communicate information or data between different computers at 100Mbps and more. 10BASE-T Ethernet can transmit information up to 100Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet can transmit information up to 1000 Mbps. Ethernet is based on bus topology but can also be used in star topology and uses cables system to transmit information or data, most common in LAN networks as well as WAN.
Today Ethernet has become the most popular technology and widely used all over the world due to its performance, easy to install and maintain. Ethernet served as the basic for the IEEE 802.3 standard and work on psychical and application layers. Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD (carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection) technology for access.
In these days Ethernet used advance mode for data communication called Full-duplex mode. In Full-duplex mode data can be communicate in both directions at the same time (send and receive). Because in past data communication between systems in only one direction at a time called half-duplex mode. But at the same time there are some limitations with Ethernet for example, Distance limitations of UTP cable, Network size limitation and collisions likely as number of hosts increases.

ADSL

ADSL stand for asymmetric digital subscriber line, here asymmetric means data speed does not same in both directions (upload and download) and provides high speed on already exiting telephone lines and same time you can use internet and as well as your line for phone. It is faster than DSL and but ADSL downstream speed (downstream rate ) is different with upstream speed (sending rate ). ADSL is much easier to install and provides much faster data transfer rate. ADSL support data upstream rate is 16 Kbps to 640 Kbps and data downstream rate is 1.5 to 9 Mbps. Normally ADSL and download and upload speed is averagely 10 time more than a normal dial up connection.

Your DSL connection to the Internet will always on, there is not need to dial your ISP each time to use internet and the main requirement for ADSL connection is modem. There are many option in modem hardware for example: USB ADSL Modem, PCI ADSL Modem, and ADSL Router, but mostly used USB Modem because easy to install. For 1 or 2 computer the USB modem is best but for more than 3 computer you should use Ethernet ADSL modem. ADSL connections are more useful in applications like videoconferencing, to run online movies and upload and download heavy files. This connection is ideal for today business requirements.

DSL

The DSL stand for Digital Subscriber Line. DSL provides high speed on already exiting telephone lines and same time you can use internet and as well as your line for phone. In DSL, both ends of connections require the network cards and DSL modems for data

Your DSL connection to the Internet will always on, there is not need to dial your ISP each time to use internet. DSL is much easier to install and provides much faster data transfer rate. Its data transmission speed start from 128 Kbps up to 10 Mbps. DSL connections are more useful in applications like videoconferencing, to run online movies and upload and download heavy files. There are different flavors of DSL like ADSL, R-ADSL, HDSL, SDSL, and VDSL.

PACKETS

What is Packets?
The transfer of data from one place to another place in the form of digital signals and this data is broken into small data segment before being transmitted from one computer to another computer. These small data segments are called packets. Each packets contains the information about its source and destination (sender's and receiver's information). A normal packets size between 1000 to 1500 bytes. The packets send to its destination using best possible path and this makes a network more efficient.
The data transmission protocols perform the data sequencing, data routing , flow control and error controls functions for the efficient and error free transmission of data. A protocol set the long message size into suitable packets size for error free communication and find the most suitable path between the sender and receiver before sending. At the end function of protocol to detect and recover errors for successful data communication between both ends.Normally a packets are divided into three main parts:
Payload: It is the part of the packet that contains the body of data or actual part of data.
Trailer: It contain the information for receiving derives about data checking, in other words it is used to check the errors in packet at destination.
Header: It contains the information about type of data, the sender and receiver of data, and the actual sequence of data so that at destination multiple packets can be assembled in proper order.
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WEB SERVERS

WEB SERVERS AND WEB HOSTING
So you’re looking to learn about web hosting and what it has to offer or you may not know much about web hosting? There is no shame in not knowing this information. Everyone has to start at the beginning at some point. On that note, lets begin learning about web hosting.
First off, what is web hosting and how does it work?
Web hosting is the business practice of providing space and bandwidth on a high-powered computer server that is connected to the Internet at very high speeds. Hosting companies maintain large networks of high-powered web server computers in a physical location known as a data center. These computer servers are connected to a very fast, and generally redundant, Internet connection. The data centers have primary and backup power, a fast connection to the Internet, and a security monitoring staff.
The web hosting companies provide a share of disk space and available bandwidth to a customer for a monthly fee. Once the customer is signed up, they can upload files to their personal space on the web server and the information is then viewable to anyone interested on the Internet. The monthly fee the web hosting company charges is much less than what it would cost to run a server out of your own home or data center. This is the reason these companies exist. They take care of all the hardware, software, and other technical needs for you.
Types of web hosting
There are many different types of web hosting offers, but the main three are shared, reseller, and dedicated. Each type of hosting is for a different purpose.
Shared Web Hosting
Shared web hosting is the most popular form of hosting. Shared hosting is a portion of disk space and bandwidth provided to you by the web hosting company on a high-powered server. There are many other web sites hosted on this server, and the hosting company is likely to have quite a few of these servers in a large data center. The resources of the server are shared by as many other websites as are allocated to that computer.
Shared web hosting is the best form of web hosting if you are looking for a great price and don’t have more than a couple thousand daily visitors to your site.
Reseller Web Hosting
Reseller web hosting is a popular, low-cost solution to starting your own web hosting business. There are two types of reseller hosting, private-label and a reseller of services.
The private-label is the best type of reseller plan because it allows you to retain full control over your customer’s websites. A private-label plan allows the reseller to keep the full monthly payment of the web-hosting customer, but the reseller must pay a monthly fee to the larger hosting company for the reseller space. The more hosting accounts a private-label reseller can sell, the higher the profit for them. Private-label hosting allows you to host many more websites than if you were using shared hosting for each. This is a great solution for someone who has many sites they need to host in one location to save money.
The reseller of services plans resell the regular web hosting plans of a larger web hosting company, but you get a discounted price for providing the customer and earn a monthly fee for as long as they remain a customer. This plan does not allow control over customer web sites and you only keep a portion of the potentially monthly revenue.
Dedicated Web Hosting
Dedicated web hosting is the most powerful and cost effective solution of hosting a busy web site without resorting to buying your own equipment and paying hundreds of dollars per month for a fast Internet connection. Dedicated hosting consists of single server with no one else hosting on that computer. This allows for the greatest of configuration options. Anyone who has a busy website will find dedicated hosting is the necessary choice.
Web Hosting Considerations
Wondering about all the other information listed in web hosting plans? In this section, I will explain the most important considerations in choosing a good web host.
Price
The price of web hosting services is one of the most important. There are many hosting companies out there with cheap hosting packages, but they may be lacking in other areas. Don’t let the price of a hosting package fool you. There are some hosting companies out there who have great prices and the other features are just as good. Price may be one of the most important decisions of a web hosting plan, but there is much more to consider in choosing a quality web host.
Disk Space / Storage Space
Disk space is the amount of physical storage space a web host gives to you to store your web files. Hosting companies these days have plans with disk space being measured mostly in terms of gigabytes, but some are still offering plans in the megabytes for storage space. Depending on your needs for file storage space, you may need more or less. Generally the more disk space offered, the better.
Bandwidth / Data Transfer
The amount of bandwidth available can make a big difference in choosing a quality hosting plan. In general, the more bandwidth a hosting company makes available to you, the better. This means you can support more traffic to your web site as your business grows. Be wary of web hosting companies that offer unlimited or unmetered bandwidth. While many of these are legitimate offers, there are some out there who are overselling their bandwidth in hopes the average user won’t use much.
Customer Support
In any business, it is very important to provide exception customer service. Web hosting is no exception to this. Many of the hosting companies are available all day and night in case you have a problem with your web site, but there are some who are just available specific hours of the day. If your web site goes down in the middle of the night when they’re not available, this means lost revenue for a business. You should make sure the web host you select is always available for support.
Money Back Guarantee
Most web hosting companies will provide a thirty-day money back guarantee. Some will provide one even long, but be wary of the ones who offer no money back guarantee. I would not purchase web hosting services from a company who does not offer at least a 30 day money back guarantee, unless they have proven themselves to be a leader in the industry and have an excellent reputation.
Operating System
An operating system is a piece of software that controls the interaction between the computer user and the physical hardware of the machine. A vast majority of all web sites on the Internet run on the Linux operation system. Linux is generally much more stable than Windows. Stability is critical in running a web site. For this reason, I prefer to host my web sites on the Linux operating system. Some sites have specific requirements that only the Windows operating system can satisfy, but there are always alternatives to those requirements.
Backup
A good web hosting company will have a regular schedule to backup the data on all the web servers. The more often the data is backed up, the better. At the very least, a web hosting company should backup web site files daily.
Control Panel
The control panel is the point of contact the web site administrator will have between the host server and their own machine connected via the Internet. It is essential to have a well organized and easy to use control panel interface. My favorite control panel is cPanel, which is one of the leading web hosting control panels out there today. Plesk is another good one, and many companies will create their own control panel for you to use. Most web hosting companies will provide a link to a demo of the control panel they use with their hosting plans. The control panel used is a matter of preference, but it should be user friendly.
Email
Email is essential part of communication on the Internet. Most web hosting companies out there will give you more email addresses and more space to hold email messages than you will ever need. What you need to watch out for is the companies that have decided to be a little strict on their email accounts and only offer a small number or a small amount of message space.
Uptime
Uptime is a term used to describe how often the average web site hosted by a company is available online. No company should be expected to provide an exact 100% uptime. This is impossible due to things such as hardware, software, and power failures. A vast majority of the companies are very good with uptime, and they guarantee it. It is still a good idea to be conscious of the uptimes posted by the company. If it is not at least 99.5%, it is probably not worth hosting with that company.
Statistics
As a webmaster, it is nice to know how many visitors you’ve had, where they came from, how long they stay on your site, and how much bandwidth they’ve used. This information is collected by the web server and is placed in a log file. A statistics software package can read this data and provide meaningful information to the webmaster. The information gathered from these logs can be very valuable in improved services to the viewers of the web site.
FTP
FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is a way of quickly uploading or downloading many files to and from a web server. Most web hosting companies will allow their customers access to their web hosting accounts via FTP. FTP is very useful and is a great feature to have when paying for a web hosting account.
Scripting
Since the World Wide Web began, many scripting languages have been created and have evolved into the dynamic and interactive environment we enjoy today. A scripting language is a way of adding functionality to a web site, whether it be to calculate numbers or to load information from an external database. Scripting languages have made electronic commerce possible. Some of these languages include PHP, ASP, JSP, Coldfusion, VBscript, Javascript, and Perl. I won’t go into the details of these in this article for the sake of complexity. If you know how to use these languages, you should know what to look for in a web server for them.
Databases
A database is a place to store data that can be used in a large variety of ways. Databases are used on the Internet for applications such as shopping carts, message boards, and product catalogues. The more databases the web hosting provider allows you to create, the most applications you can deploy on your web server. Databases are used by the more advanced web master, but information is freely available online should you be interested.
Conclusions
Web hosting can be a very difficult decision with the many thousands of hosting companies out there. It is critical to find a plan that fits your needs and to have a good hosting company. I hope this article was useful in making your decision about which company to host with. Happy Hosting!